M40 - Accounting and Auditing: GeneralReturn

The objective of this paper is to examine the factors influencing voluntary disclosures during the Initial Public Offering (IPO) process. Through a systematic review of the literature, the paper identifies and analyses the theoretical frameworks that underpin disclosure practices, including the constraints that may limit such disclosures. Based on an examination of 330 research papers obtained from the Scopus database, the findings indicate that the dominant theoretical perspectives in this field are the signalling theory and the proprietary costs theory. By integrating insights from competing theoretical frameworks, this review offers a comprehensive understanding of the determinants driving the decision-making process undertaken by management to reveal private information in IPO prospectuses.

The article focuses on the new requirements for ESG auditors following the implementation of the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD). Through an analysis of legislative documents, ethical standards, and professional literature, it defines the key professional competencies and personal attributes essential for fulfilling this new role. The outcome is a Matrix of Professional Competencies for ESG Auditors, providing a systematic overview of the necessary knowledge, skills, and qualities. This tool supports the preparation of auditors for the specific demands of ESG assurance and contributes to a broader understanding of educational and professional needs in this field. Additionally, the article opens a discussion on practical applications and challenges related to sustainability report assurance within the context of European legislation.

This essay deals with business combinations under common control and discusses possible accounting treatments depending on needs of users of financial statements. First, general methods used for business combinations are described, then it comes closer to business combinations under common control underlining their specific characteristics and how these should be treated in financial statements in various situations (e.g. a non-controlling interest involved, a simple reorganisation within a group). In the end, it shortly outlines some of different approaches in various countries to emphasize the need of unification of accounting methods and enhancing the comparability of financial statements when accounting for business combinations with the same economical substance.

This article discusses the basic issues associated with the blockchain. Blockchain logs transactions, so the usage is almost infinite. Blockchain can record virtually any transaction, both digital and physical. Blockchain technology would mean that trading and business have a trustworthy and transparent system, as the uniqueness is that one-time recordings cannot be edited retrospectively and therefore remain in history.
Blockchain technology could significantly reduce the cost of bookkeeping, tax advice, and auditing, to companies emerging from outsourced services or internal activities. If the transactions were to be accounted for centrally and not for separate books, then all records would be visible to notaries, banks, auditors, financial officers and other institutions transparently and in real time. These entities would be able to control transactions much easier and more efficiently, and could test much more information and data.
Blockchain technologies are expected to be used in a wide range of industries, including accounting and auditing. The aim of the article is to introduce this issue, to get acquainted with selected opinions published by relevant experts of consultancy companies, professional organizations and other institutions.

All transactions in multinational enterprises which are realized among group members are very sensitive to tax risks. The more often the transactions are connected to intangible assets or R&D services the more tax risks they generate. This article identifies theoretical and practical problems of services level agreements (SLA) in financial management. The author offers step-solutions for utility measurement by service provider and service receiver, cost allocations and deals with suitable profit level indicators. The goal of this article is to provide sufficient analysis of arm's length principle in SLAs with respect to the OECD Transfer pricing for MNEs Guidelines and with respect to other significant regulations.

The concept of the public interest appears in various jurisdictions and professional standards, but most is not defined, because it is considered as difficult describable category. In contrast, the profession of accounting and auditors has available tool, how implement public interest in the practice within the meaning of the general welfare. It is (so far only in the form of the proposal) IFAC publication A Public Interest Framework for the Accountancy Profession, whose content is parsed. The contribution also draws attention to the other two institutions, which, in the case of the public interest, make activities to the sustainable development. Their outputs support organizations in their efforts in this area by means of publications ISO 26 000: 2010-Guidance on Social Responsibility and the OECD Principles of Corporate Governance.

The article is dedicated to the topic of financial reporting of the economic results of universities in relation to their financing. The article defines basic issues and problems in the area: identification of and distinction between the various activities of publicly financed universities, the use of an accounting platform and related accounting principles, when report economic activity. Another important topic addressed in the paper is the issue of reporting financial results for the period. In the conclusion, the author discusses the connection between the financial reporting system of public universities and principles of financial audit.

Cost contribution arrangements (CCAs) and Cost sharing agreements (CCAs) belong to the tools of modern finance management. Costs spent by associated enterprises on developing, producing or obtaining assets, services or rights (in general - benefits) are used for tax optimizing too. The main purpose of joint research and development, producing or obtaining benefits is to lower these costs as much as possible or to maximize the benefits. The problematic of transfer pricing and arm´s length principle in connection to CCAs, CSAs is mentioned in this article, too. Next, there is mentioned how to settle participation shares of the total cost and benefits contributions with respect to the OECD Transfer pricing for MNEs Guidelines and with respect to other significant regulations.

This paper deals with different kinds of costing formulas, regarding the price-setting decisions, resp. transfer-pricing decisions and business value maximization. Results of theoretical research show that it is always suitable to separate fixed and variable costs, nevertheless retrograde costing formula is more convenient in competitive environment, whereas dynamic costing is more suitable in the case of monopoly. While reflecting the above, it is also necessary to take into account the multi-layer nature of product, including servicing and extraordinary requirements of customer (e.g. by using activity-based costing). The main determinant of success is not only the type of costing formula used, but also quality and detail of the data in information system.

The reviewed article deals with possibility of research of benefits from transition to international accounting standards. These benefits are seen especially in possibility to improve investors' knowledgeableness, thereby to reduce risk for investors and to reduce capital costs. However recapitulation of studies results shows that initial hypothesis failed to be validated. The author assumes that further research will bring better results. But his expectation is not too realistic. It is evident that it will be hardly possible sometimes to confirm empirically this hypothesis due to limited ability to measure capital costs and to single out an effect of international accounting standards introduction.

This text is concerned with problems related to transfer prices within business combinations, particularly multinational enterprises. It is based on the expectation that a company's information system is composed of three basic accounting subsystems: managerial, financial and tax. The difference between the subsystems is primarily a result of the different needs of the users. The main goal of managerial accounting is to provide information for internal users, especially for the purposes of managing the company's business processes. On the other hand, financial accounting focuses mainly on external users, who are interested in the company's financial position, productivity, and its ability to generate financial resources and allocate them in a rational manner. Tax accounting is a very specific subsystem, which has the determination of the tax base as its goal and is a tool for calculating tax obligations. Transfer prices used by business combinations fulfill various functions concurrently in each accounting subsystem. These are functions that, within managerial accounting, are primarily linked to motivation and determination of competency and responsibility. Within financial accounting, internal selling prices primarily serve as a function related to the proper distribution of profits by the syndicate to the appropriate subsidiary. They perform a similar role in tax accounting, which is concerned with the proper allocation of taxable income among individual subsidiaries. This text provides a detailed analysis of the individual methods used for establishing transfer prices in managerial accounting.

The aim of the strategic cost control is to recognize mutual interconnections and relations of budgeting process as a whole, to design the management model of a company operating in turbulent market environment and to specify the principles, rules and tools of the model. Budgets stand on the top of the complex of management system of business; they represent the completion of the whole planning system. Increasing of efficiency of budgets is closely linked to the change of business strategy reflecting changes of competitive environment of the company and the requirements of managers of their information support. Zero Based Budgeting is a contributive method to improve the quality of budgeting process. The method starts with target setting, identifying the activities in company, finding relations among these activities and grouping of the activities in the subprocesses. Considering benefits and the reasonable costs of the activities is the key step to reduce redundant and unproductive activities.

The book Financial Accounting, a Global Approach - IFRS/IAS deals with newest trends in the development of harmonization process of accounting and financial statements in the world. The structure of the book reflects the current issues in the fields of accounting, where the presentation of accounting information in the financial statements is of primary importance. The framework of financial statements, being based on accrual principle and going concern concept, is the starting point of discussion. The following chapters are related to it and continue in the analysis of basic elements of single financial statements and their mutual links. The book does not represent a set of finished, advanced and unchangeable instructions but a conceptual approach to generally received model of financial reflection of companies by help of financial statements. The author pays also attention to related fields which are bound to financial statements, like financial analysis, statutory audit, and the issues of SMEs and last but not least the ethical issues in accounting and auditing profession.

The paper deals with general questions of business data communication, particularly it focuses on the XBRL open data format. Moreover, a brief list of possible XBRL implementation impacts on financial reporting issues are discussed, mainly online reporting and continuous auditing is surveyed. Finally, the structure and activities of the non-profit XBRL International association is described, together with a report on an XBRL implementation process carried out by the US SEC.

The book review is devoted to the principle intellectual contribution of new book Financial Instruments of Management and Performance Measurement of the authors J. Fibírová and L. Šoljaková. It especially appreciates the authors´ effort to define strengths and weaknesses of financial instruments and criteria in the performance management and topicality of the book in the areas of product and customer oriented management.